Indo-European

Tolkien's Languages

Albanian

Ancient Greek

Armenian

Avestan

Gothic

Noun

Verb

Strong verb class

first

second

third

fourth

fifth

sixth

seventh

Weak verb class

weak-first

weak-second

weak-third

Hittite

Latin

Lithuanian

Lycian

Old Church Slavonic

Old English

Proper noun

Adjective

Adverb

Pronoun

Preverb

Affix

Preposition

Conjunction

Numeral

Gender

masculine

feminine

neuter

Stem class

a-stem

o-stem

n-stem

i-stem

s-stem

Verb type

strong

weak

preterite-present

Weak preterite suffix

-ed-

-od-

Old Frisian

Interjection

Noun gender

Noun class

Verb class

v-II

v-III

v-IV

v-VI

v-VII

Old High German

Old Irish

Old Norse

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Declension type

Strong

Strong Type 2

Weak

Preterite Present

Conjugation

1st Conjugation

2nd Conjugation

3rd Conjugation

4th Conjugation

v-strong-1

v-strong-2

v-strong-3

v-strong-4

v-strong-5

v-strong-6

v-strong-7

Genitive type

Stem type

-ijo-

-nd-

-ð-

Comparative formation

adj-comp-ri

Proto-Anatolian

Proto-Balto-Slavic

Proto-Celtic

Proto-Germanic

v-strong

v-weak

Proto-Indo-European

Accent-ablaut paradigm

Hysterokinetic

Proterokinetic

Acrostatic

Amphikinetic

Proto-Indo-Iranian

Proto-Italic

Proto-Northwest Germanic

Proto-Tocharian

Proto-West Germanic

Sanskrit

Tocharian B

Proper Name

Umbrian

oe-gen

-s{æ|e|o} > ∅, i > ∅, {u|y} > ∅/-es{æ|e|o} > ∅, i > ∅, {u|y} > ∅/-e/-e{æ|e|o} > ∅, i > ∅, {u|y} > ∅/-an

oe-acc

-e/-e{æ|e|o} > ∅, i > ∅, {u|y} > ∅/-n/-an

oe-dat

-e{æ|e|o} > ∅, i > ∅, {u|y} > ∅/-e/-an

oe-nom-pl

-g-as{æ|e|o} > ∅, i > ∅, {u|y} > ∅æ > a/-g-u{æ|e|o} > ∅, i > ∅, {u|y} > ∅æ > a/-a/-a{æ|e|o} > ∅, i > ∅, {u|y} > ∅/-ru/-an

oe-acc-pl

oe-gen-pl

-g-a{æ|e|o} > ∅, i > ∅, {u|y} > ∅æ > a/-a/-a{æ|e|o} > ∅, i > ∅, {u|y} > ∅/-ena/-ra

oe-dat-pl

-g-um{æ|e|o} > ∅, i > ∅, {u|y} > ∅æ > a/-umæ > a/-um{æ|e|o} > ∅, i > ∅, {u|y} > ∅æ > a/-um/-rum

oe-adj-strong-nom-pl-m

oe-restoration-of-a

oe-participle

oe-delete-vowel

oe-syncope

oe-past-stem

oe-past-1sg

oe-past-2sg

oe-past-3sg

oe-past-1pl

oe-past-2pl

oe-past-3pl

post-pwgmc-intervocalic-z

z > r / {V|j}_{V|j}, z > r / {V|j}r_{V|j}

post-pwgmc-monosyllabic-z

aiz > ā / C_, iz > ē / C_, uz > ū / C_

north-pwgmc-nasals-before-fricatives

[+syllabic,+low][-syllabic,nasal] > [+long,nasal] / _[-sonorant,+continuant], [+syllabic][-syllabic,nasal] > [+long] / _[-sonorant,+continuant]

north-pwgmc-e-before-m

north-pwgmc-nasalization

pre-oe-a-fronting

{a|ā} > {æ|ǣ} / _{!w|wi}, {a|ā} > {æ|ǣ} / _{!w|wi}

pre-oe-long-o-unrounding

pre-oe-lth

pre-oe-ij-syncope

pre-oe-h-before-two-nonsyllabics

oe-diphthong-tensing

oe-breaking-before-h

æ > ea / _h, e > eo / _h, i > io / _h, ī > īo / _h, ǣ > ēa / _h

oe-breaking-before-rc-lc

æ > ea / _{r|l}C, e > eo / _rC, e > eo / _lh, i > io / _rC, i > ie / _lh

oe-breaking-before-w

oe-hs

oe-ae-retraction

æ > a / _C[+back], æ > a / _CC[+back], æ > a / _sC[+back]

oe-palatalization

{k|g} > {ċ|ġ} / #_[-back], {kk|gg} > {ċċ|ċġ} / _{i|ī|j}, {k|g} > {ċ|ġ} / _{i|ī|j}, k > ċ / {i|ī}_{[-back]|#}, sk > sċ / #_{V|r}, g > ġ / [-back]_{[-back]|#}, g > ġ / [-back]_C

oe-ortho

oe-w-after-non-initial-velars

oe-palatal-diphtongization

{æ|ǣ} > {ea|ēa} / {ċ|ġ}_, e > ie / {ċ|ġ}_

oe-i-umlaut

oe-stress

oe-w-before-unstressed-i

oe-short-vowel-syncope

oe-i-syncope-near-l

oe-postconsonantal-j

oe-depalatalize-before-consonant

oe-shortening-before-consonants

[+syllabic] > [-long] / _CCC, [+syllabic] > [-long] / _CC, [+syllabic] > [-long] / _CC

oe-apocope

oe-voicing-assimilation

oe-degemination-before-consonant

oe-shortening-unstressed

oe-h-voiced-consonants

VVh > [+long]V / _{l|r}, Vh > [+long] / _{l|r}, h > ∅ / [+voice]_[+voice,-syllabic], VV{l|r}h > [+long]V{l|r} / _[+voice], V{l|r}h > [+long]{l|r} / _[+voice], h > ∅ / [+voice,-syllabic]_[+voice]

oe-intervocalic-h

VVh[+syllabic] > [+long]V, [+back]hV > [+long]

oe-back-umlaut

i > io / _{l|r|[bilabial]}{u|a}, e > eo / _{l|r|[bilabial]|[labiodental]}u

oe-epenthesis

∅ > e / C_r#, ∅ > o / C_r#, ∅ > e / C_l#, ∅ > o / C_l#, ∅ > e / C_n#, ∅ > u / C_m#

From	To	Gloss	Steps	Expected
PGmc *nu	*nū	now	nu > nū
PGmc *swa	*swā	so, thus	swa > swā
PGmc *ba-	OE bēgen	both	ba- > bā > bǣ	bǣ
PGmc *fria-	OE frēo	free	fria- > fri > frī	frī
PGmc *ne	OE ne	not	ne > nē	nē
PGmc *twa-	OE twēgen	two	twa- > twā > twǣ	twǣ
PGmc *þa-	OE se	that, those	þa- > þā > þǣ	þǣ
PGmc *hʷa-	OE hwā	who? what?	hʷa- > hwa > hwā > hwǣ	hwǣ

Etymograph > Indo-European > Proto-West Germanic > Rules > pwgmc-stressed-final-vowels

Examples

Sequences